Tacitus wrote that Isuer was the seat of Venutius, king of the Brigantes who was usurped by his wife, Queen Cartismandua and her lover Volucatus at the beginning of the first century. The Queen welcomed the Roman conquerors, who perceived her tribe as being no threat to their conquest of Britain, so the army focused its occupation to the south of their tribal region. Towards the end of the first century, Venutius and his followers began to attack Brigantian centres, causing the Roman army to be pushed further north to halt his rebellion against his ex-wife. The final subjugation of the Brigantes came about by Julius Agricola in 79 AD, who constructed the final settlement of Isurium. Its name is believed to be derived from the Latin name of the river Iseur (now the River Ure). It is likely there was a Brigantian settlement at Isurium before the Roman invasion, but there has been no located records of an exact settlement in the area, though there are many scattered prehistoric sites along the area.

[As there is no archaeological evidence to suggest that there was a Brigantian settlement called Iseur: the most likely Iron Age settlement of Stanwick, further north near Richmond where Cartimandua had her base, is believed to be the location of the original Iseur of King Venutius. Isurium probably became a civilian settlement between the Roecliffe fort and the River Ure during the last part of the first century. The true Civitas Capital was probably duly established in about 160 AD]

The Geographia of Ptolemy (II.ii)

The Brigantes tribal region spanned across the whole of North-East England, with exception of East Yorkshire (which was inhabited by the Parisi) and Cumbria (which was occupied by the Carvetii). They mainly constructed fortified hill crofts, but very few outright hill-forts that they are well known for. This is one of the pointing factors as to why it is suspected they existed as a federation of smaller states, uniting under a single tribal banner. This federation may have included the lands of the Setantii, Parisi and the Carvetii tribes.

Other passages in Ptolemy Book II (Chapter 2) give the names of a number of rivers and other geographical features within the territories of the Brigantes tribe, such as:

1. Tinea Fluvius (River Tyne) that is thought to have formed the N.E boundary of the tribal lands, between the Brigantes and the Votadini tribe in Northumbria.
2. Vedra Fluvius (River Wear) that flows into the North Sea, in Sunderland.
3. Dunum Sinus (Tees Bay) between modern-day Hartlepool and Redcar. 
4. Abus Fluvius (River Humber) that may have formed the S.E tribal boundary between the Brigantes and the Coritani of Lincolnshire (before the Parisi moved into East Yorkshire).
5. Seteia Aestuarium (Mersey Estuary) which marked the S.W boundary of the Brigantes, and the Cornovii in Cheshire.
6. Belisama Fluvius (River Ribble) which is thought to have formed the southern boundary of a minor tribal sect, the Setantii (who inhabited the area of modern Blackpool and the Fylde).
7. Moricambe Aestuarium (Morecambe Bay) on the west coast of Lancashire, probably marked the border with the Carvetii .

History

• c. 6th & 5th century BC, Iron Age Bringates (or their early Antecedents)

• c. 555BC

A hill fort based in modern-day Huddersfield (Yorkshire), Castle Hill, was built in this early Iron Age period, but it was constructed on a site which is predicted to have been occupied for about 1500+ years before this, its original inhabitants being the Bell Beaker folk. This fort covers the entire hill top, but the remains discovered as of yet are mainly alterations to the traditional site dating back to the middle ages.  

However, this domination of Middle Age remains, namely its Victorian tower, does not fully take away from the site’s signs of settlement since at least 2000 BC

• c.430 BC

At this point, the Castle Hill is burnt under unknown circumstances. 

But, the power of the Brigantes grew in the north, which was believed to be a peaceful rise to power. 

Not much more is known about their development until the Romans arrive.

• AD, The Bringantes as we know them today

• 43 AD

It is thought that Cartimandua, the leader of the Brigantes at this time, effectively had a “client-queen” type of relationship with the Romans. There was some form of treaty between the two sides which benefited them both. This may have occurred very early on in the Roman’s conquest of Britain. 

It is possible that Cartimandua may have been one of the 11 “kings” of Britain who surrendered to Claudius at Camulodunum (Colchester) this same year.

• 47/48 AD

Ostorius Scapula quelled a revolt in the tribe against the Roman rulers, directly after devastating the lands of the Deceangi in north-east Wales. His intervention kept the tribe and rulers in a prolonged period of subservience 

‘… Ostorius was within measurable distance of the sea which looks towards the island of Hibernia [Ireland], when an outbreak of sedition among the Brigantes recalled a leader who was firm in his resolution to attempt new conquests only when he had secured the old. The Brigantian rising … subsided on the execution of a handful of men, who were beginning hostilities, and the pardon of the rest; …’

Tacitus, Annales Book 12 Chapter 32

• 51 AD

Cartimandua is clearly still happy to tow the line with Rome. She betrays the British battle leader, following his defeat in the territory of the Ordovices. Instead of providing him with shelter and support in his ongoing fight against the invaders, she hands him over to them in bonds.

Cartimandua’s loyalty to emperor Claudius was tested when the leader of an anti-Roman rebellion, Caractacus (or Guiderius – possibly unrecognised in the north as a high king), came to her for protection after a devastating loss against the Roman legate Ostorius Scapula in Mid-Wales. Rather than accepting his request, and guarding another tribal ruler from her land, she handed him over to the Emperor as a fugitive. 

‘Caratacus himself … after seeking the protection of the Brigantian queen Cartimandua, was arrested and handed to the victors, in the ninth year from the opening of the war in Britain. …’

Tacitus Annales xii.36

After his capture, Caratacus was led in triumph by through the streets of Rome in autumn of that year, and the ornaments of a triumphant general were conferred upon Ostorius for his part in the rebel’s capture 

• 57 AD

Cartimandua is recorded to have deserted her husband for armour-bearer, Vellocatus, marrying him and sharing her power with this new consort. This led to instability in her tribe, as her husband sought out a means of revenge. 

Cartimandua’s now ex-husband, Venutius (divorced between 52-57 AD), led a rebellion against her, which is suspected to have been instigated by him and the anti-Roman faction of her tribe due to uproar of her handing over Caractacus to Claudius. 

The Queen sought the Romans’ help during this rebellion, which was quickly put down after the arrival of Caesius Nasica with the IX Legion Hispana, who defeated Venutius’ rebels (Annals 12.40).

Tacitus recorded that Cartimandua had captured some of Venutius’ family after their divorce (Annals 12.40); to which Venutius responded by attacking her. This may have also led to his uprising 

• 69 AD

After this seeming betrayal by his wife, the infuriated Venutius bided his time until 69 AD, when the death of Nero resulted in a period of instability in Rome’s politics. He seized the opportunity to launch another attack on his ex wife, who once again appealed for help from the Romans. Due to the growing instabilities ,Roman Governor Vettius Bolanus was only able to send auxiliary troops (Histories 3.45) who could do little more than help her flee. The Queen then disappeared from history, after seemingly fleeing to the newly built Roman fort at Deva (Chester) and abandoning her tribe to Venutius, who ruled briefly until the Romans finally defeated him.

• 72 – 79 AD

The Brigantes tribe, under Venutius’ rule, was dominated by a hostile anti-Roman uprising (or confederation) instead of being a cooperative client tribe like there was under Cartimandua.

This led to the Romans invading under their new Governor, Petillius Cerialis, (who had made a notable escape from total defeat during the Boudiccan rebellion in 61 AD). The Governor was able to conquer the tribe in 73 AD, but continued unrest led to the their territory being annexed by Rome in  79 AD

After their initial defeat, however, Isurium (Aldborough) was constructed to serve as the administrative centre of Brigantine territory for the Romans. 

After this devastating defeat under the Romans, the Brigantine territory began to shrink and lose power to its conquerors. The tribe has countless uprisings and losses against the Romans, but eventually they begin to lose their culture and original way of life to them. But, the stories of a Brigantine High King (alongside that of Queen Cartimandua) prevented them from being fully forgotten in history. 

Dêuoi 

• Brigantia (Victoria, Caelestia, Nymphae)

Brigantia was the patron deity of the Brigantes tribe and was also venerated throughout the iron-age world under the names of Birgit, Brigit and Bride. 

It’s possible that She had links to healing water of some kind given the nymph title, it’s also possible that She was linked to the heavens in some way given the Caelestis title. Her links to Minerva suggest attributes of knowledge and wisdom and with the links to Victoria suggest some warrior attributes.

• Alator Mars

 Celtic name, and probably means ‘huntsman’ (Roscher Lexikon s.v. Mars p. 2396; Holder s.v. Alator), while Mars is the god of war and also an agricultural guardian. This points towards a similar figure to that of Cocidios (also linked to Mars), as both a hunter and martial leader

• Alletius

Theorized to be a warrior and smith god, due to the inclusion of an anvil by his name on discovered urn fragments.

• Anextlomarus Apollo

The Gaulish theonym Anextlomāros means ‘Great Protection’, that is to say ‘he who is in Great Protection’. It stems from the noun anextlo- (‘protection’; cf. Old Irish anacul) attached to māros (‘great’).

Anextlomāros is a Celtic epithet of the sun-god Apollo recorded in a Romano-British inscription from South Shields, England. A variant form, Anextlomarus, appears as a divine style or name attested in a fragmentary Gallo-Roman dedication from Le Mans, France. Anextlomarus is also attested as a Gaulish man’s father’s name at Langres, and a feminine divine form, Anextlomara, appears in two other Gallo-Roman dedications from Avenches, Switzerland.

• Arecurius

Arecurius appears to have been a pseudonym of the sun god Apollo, and was possibly worshipped separately as a distinct British or Germanic solar deity (see Arciarcon above). The god is otherwise unrecorded in the Roman Empire.

• Arnemetia

The name of the goddess Arnemetia contains the Celtic word ‘nemeton’, meaning ‘sacred grove’; so her name is interpreted as being ’she who dwells over against the sacred grove’. The springs at Buxton, where an altar for her was located, must have held special powers for the local people as there are six grouped closely together in the valley floor and which provide both hot and cold water. She may have held similar functions to Sulis

• Belatucadrus

Romano-Gaulish, fair, shining one; bright, beautiful one].

He was venerated in Roman-occupied north Britain, he seems to have been propitiated by the humbler soldier and non-Roman civilian. The different spellings of his name may testify to his worshippers’ low rate of literacy. His name makes him comparable to Belenus, while the Romans equated him with Mars. His name may be another version of Cocidius, and his altars are comparable to those of Vitiris. Some commentators see him as a forerunner of Bendigeidfran or Bran the Blessed.

• Braciaca Mars

It is not clear whether they are a goddess or god, although the form of the name and the tendency for Celtic intoxication deities to be female seem to indicate the former.

While, the phrasing of the inscription Deo Marti Braciacae can be read as “the god Mars Braciaca,” (which is why a number of scholars believe Braciaca to be a male deity) inscriptions sometimes saved space (and carving work) by omitting the coordinating conjunction “and” and relying on context for interpretation. In that case the inscription would really mean “the god Mars [and the goddess] Braciaca.”

Braciaca’s name may derive ultimately from the Indo-Eyropean *mrakis or “malt”; the name is cognate with the Welsh brag and the Irish braich, both meaning “malt” as well.

In any case, Braciaca is almost certainly a deity associated with beer.

• Bregans

This is believed to be a masculine form of the name Brigantiâ, namely used by a high up Roman official in his inscription. 

Though there is no historical evidence of this, I believe this may be due to Romans seeing a woman in power over a man as shameful. 

• Cocidius (Mars)

 The Romans equated him with Mars, god of war and hunting, and also with Silvanus, god of forests, groves and wild fields. Like Belatucadros, he was probably worshipped by lower-ranked Roman soldiers as well as by the Britons for whom he was probably a tribal god

• Condatis (Mars)

He was associated with the confluences of rivers, in particular within County Durham in the North of England. The theonym Condatis derives from the stem condāt-, meaning ‘confluence’, itself from Proto-Celtic *kom-dati-, from an earlier kom-dhh1-ti- (‘put with, put together’, i.e. ‘grouping, reunion’).

• Contrebis

Contrebis or Contrebus (“he who dwells among us”) was the patron god of modern-day Lancaster.

• Garmangabis

It is uncertain whether Garmangabis’ name is Celtic or Germanic in origin, If it is Germanic, it likely derives from the Proto-Germanic *geban or “to give” (thus, perhaps, the “Germanic givers”); if  it is Celtic, it could derive from the Proto-Celtic *gab-yo or “to take, to hold” and *garsman or “shout, cry out” (and thus possibly suggest a willingness to respond to the cries of those in need).

• Ialonus (Contrebis)

Ialonus is thought to be the god of clearings and/or meadows.

• Maponus (Apollo)

The name Maponos is derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic root *makwo- (son) with the divine particle -os, which gives us ‘Divine Son’. He is presented similarly to Apollo (and maybe even Baldr), as a youthful and handsome son of a divine Matron

• Moguns

The main evidence is from altars dedicated to the god by Roman soldiers, presenting him as yet another Gallo-Roman martial God. According to J.T. Koch at the University of Wales, the various alternations of the name Moguns derive from the Romano-Celtic dialectal reflexes of Proto-Celtic *mogont-s (a derivative of the Proto-Indo-European root *megH2- “to be great, mighty”), an Indo-European *-nt- -stem cognate with Sanskrit mahānt and Avestan mazant ‘great’.

• Ollototae Matres

The Matres Ollototae are attested to from inscriptions from Roman Britain. The epithet comes from Celtic ollo-, ‘all’ and teuta, touta, ‘tribe,’ or in other words “Mothers of All the Tribes.” Unlike most of the inscriptions to the Matres in Britian, at least one inscription was found at a non-military site (Heronbridge, Cheshire). They, therefore, can be seen as fully maternal (and non-martial) in nature

• (Juno) Regina

Juno Regina is shown as the consort of Jupiter Dolichenus, by a statue at Chesters (CSIR I.6, 44, No. 117). This is her only British dedication, so little is known of her. But, with the name Regina it can be understood she was a powerful deity of leadership (or queenship), similar to Juno as protector and councillor of state. 

• Sattada

 She is known from a single, unadorned altar-stone dedicated to her at Chesterholm (Vindolanda).

The name on the stone may alternatively be read as Saitada or Saiiada. If it is read as Satiada, the name may conceivably be related to the Proto-Celtic *sāti- ‘saturation’ or *satjā- ‘swarm’. Not much else is known of her

• Suleviae

Their name can be interpreted as ‘good rulers’ or ‘good guides’; as it is made up of the prefix su- ‘good’ and the root leuia. 

Jufer and Luginbühl distinguish the Suleviae from another group of plural Celtic goddesses, the Matres, and they interpret the name Suleviae as meaning “those who govern well”. 

• Verbeia

Verbeia is the Romano-British name given to the genius loci of the River Wharfe and is specifically associated with the two streams which flow down from Ilkley Moor and converge just behind the town itself. 

She is known from a single altar-stone dedicated to her at Ilkley; an image of a woman (also from Ilkley) may represent the goddess: she is depicted with an overlarge head and schematic features; she wears a long, pleated robe and she has two large snakes, represented as geometric zig-zags, which she grasps, one in each hand. This may link to the two streams of the river. 

• Vernostonus Cocidius

Vernostonos may be derived from the Proto-Celtic *Werno-stonos meaning ‘the Groaning of Alder-trunks’. So, he may be a similar figure to Cocidios, but namely in alder tree forests surrounding his cult in County Durham

• Veteres (also spelled; Veteris, Vetiris, Vheteris, Viteris, Vitires, Vitiris, Huitires).

Being adressed by his votaries in various forms – singular and plural~ masculine and feminine and perhaps even neuter- this deity can be seen as ill-defined and amorphous. 

Yet the Celtic symbolism detected on some of the altars suggests the idea of a northern British horned god, with a serpent and a boar being depicted with him.

• Vinotonus (Silvanus)

 Only four altars dedicated to Vinotonus have been found, so little is known of him. The ancient Romans found Vinotonus to be equivalent to Silvanus, the god of agriculture, and that he was a wilderness god. Therefore, he may have held similar functions to that of Silvanus and Cocidios 

References

• https://skribbatous.org/sanestos/krabyi/inscriptions#britannia
• https://www.historyfiles.co.uk/index.htmlhttps://www.roman-britain.co.uk/
• https://warwick.ac.uk/
• https://buxtonmuseumandartgallery.wordpress.com/
• https://hearthfirehandworks.com/
• https://romaninscriptionsofbritain.org/
• https://scottishdruid.wordpress.com/
• https://druidalliance.com/